Breaking Down the Brutality in Sports

Breaking Down the Brutality in Sports In attempting to understand and argue whether violence in modern sport has continued to augment over time, it is firstly necessary to grapple with what is understood by the term violence. Olweus (1999) rather narrowly, suggests that violence is the ‘use of physical force’. [1] He defines violence/violent behaviour as ‘aggressive behaviour where the actor or perpetrator uses his or her own body as an object (including a weapon) to inflict (relatively serious) injury or discomfort upon an individual’ (1999:7). However, as the study of violence has continued to expand, so too has its characterisation. The World Report on Violence and Health (WRVH, 2002) states, that violence is the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development, or deprivation. More specifically, v iolence in sports has been defined as ‘behavior which causes harm, occurs outside of the rules of the sport, and is unrelated to the competitive objectives of the sport’ (Terry Jackson, 1985:2). However, despite the fact that it is no easy task to formulate a specific concrete all encompassing understanding of violence what is clear is that there has been a continuous surge in both frequency and seriousness of acts of violence in sports in the modern era (Leonard, 1988). However, it is still problematic to give a definitive answer to such a complex question as, for example, the Australian Government have stated that hard data on the extent of sporting violence is not available, but that the sporting associations have indicated that there has not been an increase in violence over recent years (Wenn, 1989).The difficulty lies in assessing whether or not this level of violence has always been present in sport but appears, because of different influential factors, to be a recent phenomenon that is continuing to increase in today’s world. This essay will look at both player/on pitch violence and spectator violence. During the period before the fall of the Roman Empire, violence in sport was in essence, a fundamental principle in society that far from undermining or offending social norms was actually endorsed and embraced by both athletes and spectators and became very much part of ordinary working society. The famous Historian Josephus described how Titus dealt with his captives from the Jewish Rebellion. The number of those destroyed in contests with wild beasts or with one another or in the flames exceeded 2,500(Grant,1999: 28). This approach was not greeted by shock by the Romans. In fact, violence was so much an integrated part of society and sport that the gladiators upon signing on swore; I undertake to be burnt by fire, to be bound in chains, to be beaten, to die by the sword (Grant, 1999: 45).[2]Furthermore, historically, violence was not only found in sports, but it served as a sport in itself, such as was the case in Ireland in the 19th Century (Conley, 1999). From a Sociological per spective, this approach to sport is indicative of an attitude to life, death, and the sufferings of others which is very different from that which dominates in the contemporary West (Dunning, 2002: 47), as a large part of the West is liberal and democratic and acknowledges the importance of Human Rights and the essential right to life. If arguing that violence in sport today continues to be unambiguously prevalent it is useful to look to the law for empirical evidence. There are numerous professional sports leagues and other governing bodies which police violent activity and provide, what is deemed to be, appropriate punishment. There are a few important cases that indicate the stance taken by the law as it stands vis-à  -vis violent action in sports; in the 1969 case[3]for example, the court held that in this instance it was a case of self-defense. However, more importantly, they acknowledged that there was no difference between sports contests and real-world violence and thus as later highlighted by the McSorley (2000) case, violence in sport is considered a criminal assault if one unjustifiably and intentionally uses force upon another with intent to cause injury. The crime usually involves a threat of harm, coupled with improper contact with the other person. This has enormous consequences in that it indicates that any action deemed to be violent and unnecessary can result in a criminal conviction as it is deemed to be an assault and therefore illegal. However, the question remains; does the introduction and expansion of law on violence in sport mean that violence today is less common or is the law, now, a very necessary tool that must be wielded because the level of violence continues to mount? Research has suggested that the causes of sport violence are provocation by the other team or competition, encouragement by coaches (Reilly, 1995; OBrien and Wolff, 1996), peer pressure, wanting to win, because it is an implicit part of the game (Scher, 1993; Weinstein, et al., 1995; Pilz, 1996), revenge and retaliation, and as the result of role models (Pooley and Golding, 1987). If these findings are accurate this suggests that violence has a high probability of taking place in sport when its use constitutes the difference between winning and losing, as well as when there is weak officiating, sanctions are not severe, so there is no real fear of detrimental penalization, coaches are not willing or able to control their players, or even encourage them to break laws (Clark, 1981). This highlights a big difficulty in that, despite the increase in law and regulatory bodies, violence continues to be a very real problem in sport. Furthermore, a problem lies in the fact that evaluating wh en these causes arise can be virtually impossible: there is no specific way of knowing how coaches react in a dressing room or how players feel before a match. In addition, it has been argued that among males, some are influenced by the macho image in society (Messner, 1992; Messner and Sabo, 1992; Coakley, 1998) and in attempting to be seen as strong and fit and fearless have a tendency to engage in high levels of violence to illustrate their masculinity. A further difficulty in assessing whether violence in sport has actually increased in today’s world is the fact that it is generally acknowledged that â€Å"brutal body contact† is seen as integral to some sports (Smith, 1983).[4] This ‘contact’ essentially conforms to the rules of the sport as already specified, by the relevant regulatory body and is completely legitimate even when the same sort of behaviour outside the sports context is defined as criminal, like for example assault. Athletes, because they have consensually taken part have implicitly accepted the inevitability of rough contact and the likelihood that they will receive a few knocks during the ‘rough and tumble’. They have thus implicitly agreed to the probability of minor injury and even the possibility of serious injury. A good example is that of Stuart Mangan[5]. When the question of whether violence is sport is increasing is posed in light of such a sad case, prima facie, it becomes easier to answer it in the affirmative and not only that, it also becomes possible to argue today that such a standard of violence is actually acceptable to the spectators and not repugnant to the norms of a modern democracy. However, it must be noted that athletes cannot, reasonably be said to have agreed to injuries sustained from physical assaults that violate the written and unwritten rules of the sport. This means that any act of violence cannot ever violate the terms of the specific sport in question which essentially means that today sport and violence has clear parameters that must be adhered to. Another interesting feature that needs examination in order to answer the question comprehensively is this notion of â€Å"Borderline violence† (Smith, 1986) which consists of behaviors that violate the official rules of the sport but remain acceptable to players and fans alike as a ‘legitimate part’ of the game. Such activity —a fight or headbuttin ice hockey or an intentional foul in association football’s penalty zone—is rarely if ever subject to a court hearing and there is increasingly a tendency to be deal with these types of issues by penalties imposed by referees, umpires, or league administrators. A solid example of this occurred in 1997 when the Nevada Commission censured and banned boxer Mike Tyson for biting his opponent(NY Times, 1997). More-extreme rule infractions—those that upset both the formal rules of the sport and also the law of the land—elicit , normally, a harsher formal response, especially when the violen ce results in serious injury. If it is accepted that sport, by its very essence inevitable incorporates a certain level of violence and disharmony it once again becomes more difficult to truly estimate whether violence has become and continues to become more prominent in sport or whether the very existence of sport has meant and continues to mean that violence has always been a part of it. In sport is often equated with pure violence (Atkinson Young, 2008). Elias (1993) suggests that sports grow out of regulated societies where violence in general is reduced (liberal democracies for example) to a minimum because disagreements are resolved politically in the normal way. Sports thus function, in these societies, as a relief-institution, a mimetic battle that allows people to achieve fulfillment and catharsis without acts of violence . . . the infliction of physical injuries or of death upon other human beings. Essentially that sport is an outlet by which to vent anger and frustration. However, since sports are close to violence, it is also in the context of sporting events that violence tends to manifest itself first when society (because of unemployment, poverty, discrimination, etc.) begins to break down. Hooliganism is just one example Elias gives of this phenomenon. This essay will now focus on the aforementioned second type of violence. Sometimes fans do more than complain. Violence by supporters of sports teams dates back to Roman times, when supporters of chariot racing teams were frequently involved in major riots. A notable example of this is the Nika riots of 532 (Weir, 1996). However, it is clear that in the 1960s and 1970s, there was an increase of a dramatic nature in violence committed by sports spectators (Dunning, 1993).[6] Despite the copious amounts of empirical evidence it is not easy to find a simple answer to such a complex and multifaceted question, not least because there is a real failure to distinguish effects across different types of sport (Baumert, Henderson Thompson, 1998; Begg et al, 1996; Jackson et al, 2002; Nixon 1997; Wright and Fitzpatrick, 2006). If one looks to the law and the multifarious number of organisations that exist today to oversee and monitor sport it would be a fair to assume that violence has decreased and will continue to do so in sport. However, if one argues that sport naturally incorporates violence, especially contact sports and that these sports are not banned but in fact avidly supported, encouraged and loved by the athletes themselves and the loyal fans and is a vital outlet to vent anger than it would be a fair assessment to say that violence is on the up. However, this is not such a simplistic topic. No one point can be looked at in isolation. This essay ultima tely argues that, whether or not violence in sport is on the up, currently it has become virtually impossible to answer this question accurately not least because of the very prominent and influential role of the media. The question really becomes whether the heightened public attention and media focus on sports violence reflects not so much an augmentation in the incidence or severity of aggression, but rather greater public concern with moral issues and political discourse?

Species at the Small Nature Trail Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Species at the Small Nature Trail - Essay Example The Small Nature Trail is not named so because of its size, but rather it is named after Lawrence Small, who owned the land before it was acquired by the school. The trail loops through woods and wetlands and offers many opportunities to observe diverse plant and animal interactions in their natural surroundings. The Harvard Trails Guide released by the Harvard Conservation Trust (n.d.) mentions that, â€Å"the black birch which, when scratched, smells like root beer; spice bush, which also emits a ‘spicy’ odor; sassafras, with its three different leaf shapes; and the shagbark hickory, with its distinctive or exfoliating bark.† I was able to identify and examine these trees myself during the hour and a half long trail walk. There were also boardwalks and bridges that cover the wet areas of the trail. A little while into my trail walk, I began to examine the ground where I was walking more closely. Soon, I noticed red ants moving rather quickly in their line. They were carrying a dead beetle to their nest. As I looked closely, I noticed that the larger worker ants were carrying the beetle while the smaller worker ants assisted the larger ones and went up and down the line formation, trying to get the dead beetle to their nest. ... Once the beetle was taken into the hole, the activity above the ground reduced as most of the ants accompanied their food into hole. After watching their activity for a while, I went back to the trail to continue my exploration. As I walked along the trail, I noticed bracket fungi growing on several trees like the poplar and maple trees. They were easy to identify as they had the characteristic semi-circular shape, which looks like shelving growing out of the trees. In fact, throughout my trail walk, I found several bracket fungi growing on trees and tree stumps. When I touched them, they felt soft and squishy. Bracket fungi are known to derive their nourishment from their host – the trees. I plucked out a piece of the fungi from a tree trunk and found some small root-like structures extending into the tree. Therefore, I believe that the bracket fungi that I saw were parasitic. The walk on the boardwalk was a wonderful experience as there was thick foliage on both sides and on e cannot see too far since the path twists and turns through the foliage. As I got off the board walk, I saw several different kinds of plants which had flowers of different colors. That is when I noticed some butterflies fluttering around these flowers. As I took some time to observe this insect-plant interaction, I realized that the butterflies was not only drinking the nectar from the flowers, but were also helping the plants in pollination - something that I had studied in my school, but never really taken the time to notice in nature. I spent a considerable amount of time observing these butterflies. After spending some time with the butterflies, I resumed my walk. As I approached the wet area of the trail, I noticed some turtles basking in the sun. I

Eugenics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Eugenics - Essay Example Uninformed parents choose the abortion option at the first sign of there being an abnormality with their unborn baby, causing a major decline in the birth rates of babies with abnormalities such as Down Syndrome(DS) and Cystic Fibrosis(CF). The author further says that cystic fibrosis is no longer the threat it was once considered, thanks to the advancement in modern science. Hence all the babies diagnosed with it and subsequently hurriedly aborted could have had a chance at life. He says that parents are usually given bits and pieces of information which is not enough to reach a decision. The article is very thought provoking, especially when you think about how easy it is to be misdiagnosed. A human should not decide the fate of another human being, no matter what the reasoning behind the decision. Killing an unborn baby out of fear that it may be a drain on resources makes us no different from people belonging to ancient cultures considered uncivilized and barbaric. Works Cited Sm ith, Wesley J. â€Å"Politically Correct Eugenics: Brownback and Kennedy do the Right Thing.† The Weekly Standard. The Weekly Standard LLC., 31 Mar. 2008. Web. 22 Mar. 2011.

Federal Prison Comparison Pape Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Federal Prison Comparison Pape - Research Paper Example Ultimately there are fewer violent offenders in federal prisons than state prisons because a majority of federal crimes are non-violent/commercial crimes. State prisons originate from colonial times, and evolved from the prisons that were established to house criminals who offended the laws against the crown (Clear et al, 2011). Between 1900 and 1970 the prison population in the US was moderate, housing from 90 to 120 prisoners for each 100,000 citizens. However, with more than 35 years of â€Å"steady growth† the prison population is currently five times greater than it was in 1973 representing the largest prison population in the country’s history (Clear et al, 2011, p. 6). There have been many attempts to explain the prions population growth in the US. Gaines and Miller (2011) identified a number of contributing factors. The prions population growth in the US can be attributed to the get tough on crime policies that began in the 1980s. The get tough on crime policies introduced a number of strategies that resulted in mandatory imprisonment. One such strategy in a number of states is the three strikes policy which calls for mandatory incarceration for repeat offenders. Another policy is the longer prison sentencing strategies. With fewer prisoners eligible for parole, the prison population grows because new offenders are introduced into the system and few prisoners are released. Another explanation given for the prison population growth is the fact that there have been more crimes as criminals become more sophisticated and technology aids in the commission of criminal activities (Gaines & Miller, 2011). Security State Prisons State prison systems design their own security systems but they are generally the same among the 50 states. The North Carolina Department of Correction provides an example of the security levels in US state prisons. Prisoners enter the prison system from a county jail for the most part. Upon entering the state prison prison ers are assessed for risks and security risks are balanced against the needs of programs. Newly admitted prisoners are evaluated for security risks and are also subjected to medical and mental health evaluations in the risk assessment process. A number of factors including the crime, social demographics, education, job experience, and criminal history are taken into account (North Carolina Department of Corrections, 2011). Once the prisoner’s evaluation is completed he/she is placed in the appropriate â€Å"custodial level†. The custodial levels are classified as close (maximum), medium, minimum 1, minimum II and minimum III. Close of maximum security is a custodial level where inmates assessed to have the highest security risks are placed. Medium security houses prisoners who are at a lower security risk than prisoners placed in close security. Prisoners who pose a low security risk are placed in minimum III (North Carolina Department of Corrections, 2011). Federal Pr isons The Federal Bureau of Prisons (n.d.) lists four security levels in the federal prison system. The four security systems are minimum security, low security, medium security and high security. Minimum security prisons are also referred to as Federal Prison Camps and have â€Å"dormitory housing, a relatively low staff-to-inmate ratio† and â€Å"limited or no perimeter fencing† (Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.). Low security prisons on the other hand have â€Å"double-fenced perimeters†

High Budget Deficit and the Growth Rate of the Economy Essay

High Budget Deficit and the Growth Rate of the Economy - Essay Example The nation with high private saving will offset the moderate deficit financing in a much better way to provide for investment capital necessary for the growth of economy. Thus, for future economic growth national savings matter highly. National saving is the measure of the accumulation of financial and other real assets overtime. Future national income will largely depend upon this accumulated stock of assets. Unfortunately, deficit financing coupled with nil or negative private saving has made the national saving negative. In this perspective, deficit financing on a sustained basis cannot help US economy. Higher Interest Rates Macguineas (2011) argues that ever increasing deficit financing will exert upward pressure on interest rates thereby increasing the cost of capital. Budgetary deficits are financed through government borrowings. When government borrowings rise to a high level, the government may have to offer increased interest rates so that sufficient buyers are attracted to buy government debt. Obviously, higher interest rates will tend to retard the economic growth rate. Higher Borrowing Leads to Higher Interest Payments Increasing borrowings year after year will necessitate higher spending on debt-interest. Higher interest burden eats away the productive deployment of the capital necessary for the economic growth. As a result, the needy sectors such as education, health starve of the funds that are necessary to provide impetus to the economy. Defense Spending and Budgetary Deficit Korb et al. (2011) of the center for American Progress (CAP) argue that defense spending has created the current fiscal crisis. The experts from the CAP believe that the massive deficit is the result of increasing defense budget during 2004 through 2012. It...This essay offers a comprehensive review of the effects, that the high levels of budget deficit exercise on the economic development of the country, using the example of the US. In 2011, it was the third straight year when the gap between American government's income and spending remained negative to the tune of $1 trillion or above. In percentage terms, the deficit is hovering at around 10 percent of gross domestic product in last two years. This was causing serious concerns at several quarters on soaring national debt. The national saving rate is important for future economic growth and budgetary deficit has a direct bearing on national saving rate. Since last many years private saving is meager in the US and in last couple of years it has gone even negative. With such a low/negative saving, it is difficult to obtain economic growth and US productivity at desired rate. Ever increasing deficit financing will exert upward pressure on interest rates thereby increasing the cost of capital. Budgetary deficits are financed through government borrowings. When government borrowings rise to a high level, the government may have to offer increased interest rates so that sufficient buyers are attracted to buy government debt. Higher interest rates retards the economic growth rate. It can be concluded that when the government incurs debt, it is important to know what government does with that money. If the money are deployed for productive purposes, it can certainly help the economy of the present as well as future generations.

Psychological disorders Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Psychological disorders - Movie Review Example He is amoral and has no problem being rude and condescending to his friends. After he tires of Tom Ripley’s company, he decides to tell him to leave by telling him he is boring with little regard for his feelings. He calls him a leach who is taking over his possessions and his life although he is the one who had invited him to stay with him. Additionally, he continuously has other sexual relations behind his girlfriends back and shows no remorse for it. He is so charming that he has no problem talking himself out of any problem. Discrepancies and any shortcomings he may have are hidden under a faà §ade of unrestrained adventurism and nonchalance. Although he has an endless supply of his father’s money, he selfishly refuses to lend any money to his lover who urgently needs it to have an abortion. He additionally cannot accept responsibility for her death when she commits suicide after the fact. Individuals suffering from narcissistic personality disorder can be effectively treated through individual cognitive behavioral therapy over a long period of time. The goal or outcome of the treatment is usually to modify distorted thoughts while creating a realistic self image. It is worth noting that successful treatment is usually hindered by the individual’s unwillingness to admit that they suffer from the disorder (APA). Psychopaths intellectualize and rationalize their behavior in a manner that shows dysfunction of conscience. They show no remorse for defrauding and hurting others. They are unable to adapt to societal norms and are usually unable to truly find their true identity. They tend to take up the identities of those that they admire or of people they would want to be. Tom Ripley is the perfect example of a psychopath whose main desire is to belong to a higher social class. He passes himself off as a Princeton graduate by wearing a blazer with the Princeton crest on the pocket. He fools Mr. Greenleaf into

A summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

A summary - Essay Example eedom to all irrespective of the race, sex, language, and religion along with the cooperation of the international arena (United Nations, General Assembly, 1). The underlying agenda which is reflected out through the resolution of 65/166 is that of the culture. The human beings must possess the fundamentals which would be directed towards the unified respect for varied belief, culture, as well as religions. Tolerance should be geared up in every phase without fear repression and should be subjected as a valuable asset of humanity with the active promotion of the same (United Nations, General Assembly, 2). The resolution cab be viewed as an apex tool for the rejuvenating the importance of culture on the process of sustainable development at a juncture when the international actors in the development trajectory are focusing on the assessment of gaps in achieving certain objectives subjected to the promotion in the United Nations Conference on Sustainable development and summit on the Millennium Development Goals in the year 2015. The resolution moved in favor of the accumulation of relevant data and raw information sets for the purpose of de monstrating the impact of culture on the social, as well as the economic well being of the people and the societies with the formulation of national, as well as international policy ramifications. The resolution also directed towards broader mainstreaming of the culture in to the United Nations Development Assistance Framework within the field of culture and development within the recently signed MOU (memorandum of understandings) by UNESCO and the World Bank. The resolution has also opened dimensions for all the entities of the United Nations in the understanding of the correlation between culture and sustainable development with the infusion of development of indicators, statistics and that of optimal acquisition policies. The resolution leads the way of analyzing the qualitative impact of culture on the welfare dynamics for