New Employment Relationship vs. the Manual Investment Approach Essay

New Employment Relationship vs. the Manual Investment Approach - Essay Example The new relationship that was now formed is one that employers give their employees challenging tasks, fixed salaries and opportunities to increase their expertise so that they can be benefit their businesses (Losey, Meisinger, & Ulrich 45). Therefore, this obligates employees to pay the employer with job performance, and this somehow undermines the employee commitment to the organization. This new relationship between employers and employees has changed from the loyal one that existed before globalization and increased competition, to one that based on economic exchanges. The authors urge organizations to uphold the mutual investment relationship so as to gain competitive advantage because workers will be committed to attaining the organizational goals. They argue that many organizations today are focused on achieving high profits and are not considering the welfare of their employees. I believe that organizations should take care of the needs of their employers and offer them job s ecurity. This will be a motivation for the workers to work hard and achieve the goals set by the organization because they are comfortable. Organizations need to invest in their employees because they are the ones who make the organization make profits and if everyone in the organization is catered for it will thrive. Research shows that the human resource department should take the responsibility of catering for the needs of their employees. Motivation of employees is key to success of any organization. Rewarding and giving employees benefits goes a long way in creating commitment to the job and this increases efficiency operations (Losey, Meisinger, & Ulrich 50). Job security and satisfaction are vital for any employee because it makes them comfortable in the job environment and they are able to undertake their duties efficiently (KnowWPC). Employers need to invest in their workers by offering benefits and training to improve their skills, so that efficacy in business operations c an be attained. This mutual investment employment relationship has been supported by other professionals in human resource as they see employee job security and skill advancement as vital in ensuring business success (S.R. de Silva 6). Chapter8: Life after Outsourcing: Lessons Learned and the Role of Human Resources as a Strategic Business Partner (Mirian M. Graddick-Weir) In the recent past, human resource management activities outsourcing has grown tremendously and more in the manufacturing and service industries. Outsourcing is in the payroll, benefits, recruiting and training sections of most organizations. The major reason for companies to outsource is because they have limited internal investment in the area of concern. Outsourcing is done in the light of ensuring business operations go on smoothly without interruptions because of lack of efficient resources to carry out assigned tasks (Losey, Meisinger, & Ulrich 71). However, it is evident that most organizations use outsourc ing to make use of external experts who will see that efficacy in operations is achieved. Emerging and already established organizations are continuously outsourcing various human resource activities from providers outside the business. Outsourcing is beneficial to the organization for various reasons, the

Death and fate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Death and fate - Essay Example This story thus tries to show how death is inevitable and despite efforts put in place, it will always find ways of capturing its victims. The story revolves around death and its inevitability. It portrays many traditions of the Gothic fiction thus presenting an allegory of death and fate. It is therefore important to study and know how different societies deal with death and the meanings behind their actions. Death in Different Societies Over the years, the mystery of death have stunned many individuals and because no one knows what happens when after death, different societies have come up with tales on the origin of death, causes of death and implications of death. Different people have different believes on death, but the vast majority view death as a form of punishment from a supreme being usually referred to as ‘god’ or ‘the ancestors’. Very few people have embraced the reality about death and view it as natural, many still believe that death occurs as a result of fate or punishment (Lynn 327). To broadly understand death in different societies, we will attempt to look at what the societies believe are the causes of death, what are the remedies to the stated cause and whether death is avoidable by any chance. Death According to the Muslim Societies According to the Muslim community, death is normally regarded as the ultimate completion or end of the physical life of an individual. The dead person is normally referred to as resting because, this society believes that, in the end, the dead will be resurrected by God normally referred to as Allah. Since the dead are only resting, they believe that those who were righteous are capable of seeing visions of Allah even in immortal state. The wicked on the other hand, usually see hell in their visions. According to the Muslim society, there is heaven where the dead will go after judgment (Ivone 174). This place however is restricted to the pure Muslims; non Muslims can only get to heaven after they have been purified in fire, commonly known as the purgatory. In Muslim society, religious legends are worshiped and specific shrines are built for their remembrance. To date, Prophet Mohammed is worshiped and every Muslim knows that he was the most righteous person who ever lived. As a way of recognizing this, special shrine is built in Mecca where Muslims Faithful usually visit to pay their tribute to this hero. This process is done annually. When a Muslim dies, he is supposed to be washed, wrapped in a white clean cloth and buried the same day. This is done to honor the dead and give him last respect. People know very little in what happens after one is buried and they just believes that he or she will be resurrected when time comes. Muslims also believe in a holy war called Jihad. In this war, if someone dies in an attempt to do the will or Allah, he is guaranteed heaven. This is why, some fighters like Osama, having been convinced that they were doing service to God, would do anything without being human enough to reconsider his actions. When he died, the best thing was to bury him under water to avoid shrines and a repeat of the same cycle. Death in Traditional African Society Many traditional practices according to many traditional practices are coiled around death and resurrection. Many individuals believe in the existence of semi-divine powers and the intercession of spirits (Aloysius and Joanne 68). It is therefore important to appease the spirits if one is to avoid the painful consequences of death. There are also

Lit 8a Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lit 8a - Essay Example Many critics point out that Dr. Seuss’s characters have enjoyed the pleasure of life along with thrill in misbehaving. In his online article titled Dr. Seuss: American Icon, Philip Nel shares his own views about Dr Seuss’s works. He says, â€Å"His work was a rational insanity that exhibited joyous anarchy and a lifelong thrill in misbehaving.† (Nel). After reading these comments one can see that Dr. Seuss’s works are mainly for children. Many of his books provide strong moral messages example The Cat in the Hat and The Sneeches which discuss the stories of children. The article entitled Creating Drama with Poetry: Teaching English as a Second Language through Dramatization and Improvisation gives a brief summary of the relevance of dramatization and improvisation in second language classroom. There are different ways for adopting these methods in the class room. Dramatization of poetry helps the students to acquire the various aspects of language such as linguistic, syntactical and conceptual. There are several classroom techniques which are useful for teaching poetry. Giving the students model for pronunciation, stress, rhythm and expression is one. Motivate them to create conversation and interaction. To create workshops for drama in classroom is another important way Picture book is a short demonstration book, where the lessons to be taught are presented in the form of pictures. Picture books are highly helpful for children. These include alphabet books, books about different seasons, books about colors and counting books. Picture storybooks reveal a story with the help of suitable pictures and illustrations. Susan Hall gives enough clarifications about the definition of picture storybook. He says, â€Å"The words and pictures ideally share in revealing the story so that what is not said in the text is shown in illustration.† (Hall). The following storybooks are prescribed for children.

International Portfolio Diversification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

International Portfolio Diversification - Essay Example They are followed by the investment strategies pursued by three international funds. In this part, the steps that they make to highlight lucrative investment have been mentioned. Improving Returns International stocks have more chances to bring higher returns in comparison with the local stocks. Investors are considerably aware of the fact that international stocks have a wide variety of characteristics. The wide variety of characteristics is capable to increase portfolio performance by diversifying across different international markets or different industries in different countries. In this regard, investing in the foreign or international markets offers difference when compared with the investment made in domestic or national market, and this difference can be comprehended in three ways. First, barriers levied by currency controls, taxation, or investor traditions may further so divide national markets that assets are priced in a national instead of an international landscape. Sec ond, the co-variances among assets within a national market are much bigger than the co-variances among different markets. Third, exchange rates between different currencies depart from each other, exposing currency to international portfolios (Gupta & Donleavy, 2009, p. 163). ... If an investor invests 100 percent of his funds in a firm producing sunscreen lotion, he will be exposed to the risk of weather events; on rainy days there will be no sales of sunscreen lotion, but on sunny days sales will be good. If the same level of investment were divided with half in the sunscreen lotion firm and half in an umbrella manufacturing company, the investment would become immune to negative weather effects and the portfolio would generate interrupted flow of returns regardless of weather patterns. The Optimal International Portfolio Diversification brings variety in investment. The optimal international portfolio combines the same risk-free assets as before (Eiteman et al., 2010, p.438). Eiteman et al. (2010) argue that the benefits of international diversification can be comprehended on the basis of the fact that the optimal international portfolio incorporates both higher expected portfolio return and lower expected portfolio risk when compared with the purely natio nal or domestic optimal portfolio. As a result, the optimal international portfolio has been established as superior and financially lucrative as compared to the optimal domestic portfolio. Global Funds Using International Portfolio Diversification Templeton Global Bond Fund The firm uses both quantitative and qualitative analysis before investing diversified funds globally (Templeton Global Bond Fund, 2012). The firm employs both quantitative and qualitative analysis along with on-the-ground research. In order to minimize the portfolio risk and increase the chances of portfolio returns, the firm utilizes the resources of local analysts across the world to identify and highlight financially

Identity and diversity Essay Example for Free

Identity and diversity Essay Identity is a complex and diverse issue. As much as society, the media and academics try to debate its definition it is difficult to capture fully its meaning. According to Kroger (2000) identity is â€Å"a subjective feeling of self-sameness and continuity over time†. If research to date has shown anything it is that there are a number of ways to examine identity in psychology. Of the three Identity theorists available to us it is the Social Constructionist theory that has transformed the way we view and research identity today. It has provided us with an epistemological viewpoint that brings with it new methods of conducting identity research. This essay illustrates some of the strengths and weaknesses of this approach. The Social Constructionist approach has many strengths but its greatest is that it contributes epistemologically to the psychological study of human experiences. It suggests that any one environmental condition can produce many ‘knowledges’. (Willig, 2001) It highlights the central role of historical context, culture and language in the formation of a persons identity. The Social Constructionist theory views the person as embedded in society, continuously constructing multiple, diverse identities from a variety of social interactions. (Phoenix, 2007) Research by Keith, 1994 on ‘people with disabilities’ has shown that the individual differences within groups of people with the same impairment did not produce a single identity. To the contrary it showed that there is no â€Å"disabled† identity but instead multiple and diverse identity’s. â€Å"I am not my disability, I’m me†. (Keith, 1994) This research complements the psychosocial research by Erikson’s where the importance of community and social interaction in the formation of identity was first identified. However, psychosocial theory only sees the person as being affected by society (Phoenix, 2007). Both the Social Constructionists and the psychosocial theorists use qualitative research methodologies, the aim of which is to understand ‘what it is like’ to experience different human experiences. Using a qualitative research methodology means the researcher is primarily concerned with meaning. (Willig, 2001) One of the strengths of the Social Constructionist approach is that it has broadened the focus from mental processes to include how we understand meaning through language and social relations. It suggests that identities are not ‘natural’ and that ‘realities’ are constructed by people in their everyday social interactions. Therefore, Social Constructionist  researchers have shown how identities are constructed differently depending on which culture is being examined. People living in collectivist societies like Japan and China responded based on their relationships to other people, â€Å"I am a student at Beijing University†. In contrast respondents from individualists’ cultures answered more personally â€Å"I am a student†. (Smith and Bond, 1998) On the other hand psychosocial theorists use methodologies based on introspection and neglect large scale social identities. They view personal and social aspects as different and focus on the personal aspects. (Phoenix, 2007) Clearly, language is a crucial aspect of socially constructed knowledge. Social Constructionists researchers emphasise the central role that language plays in the construction of meaning. (Willing, 2001) â€Å"Conversation is to be thought of as creating a social world just as causality generates a physical one.† (Harre, 1983, p65 as cited in Pasupathi, 2001). The Social Constructionists viewpoint is that the same thing can be understood in a number of different ways, depending on the way people choose to tell their stories. A further strength of the Social Constructionist approach is that it provides the researcher with meaning and language based methods, namely, discourse analysis. This hermeneutic approach treats participants as ‘meaning producers’ and allows the researcher to examine the aspects of identity formation that are fluid and changing from setting to setting. (Phoenix, 2007). The study of ‘life as a disabled child’ shows evidence of both rejecting being in a disabled category and also using their disability to gain privilege â€Å"Can we go early, Miss, ‘cos we are disabled. (Watson et al, 2000) Research carried out by psychosocial researchers use methods grounded in introspection and psychoanalysis. These researchers view language as a tool that can be used to describe inner experiences. They use research methods like clinical studies, ethnography and naturalistic observations all of which provide data that looks inward into the conscious mind and therefore has limitations in its methods of analysis. (Phoenix, 2007). The language used is therefore not analysed for meaning making, instead it is used to understand the viewpoints of individuals and to look for commonalities that substantiate the researcher claims. Although the Social Constructionist approach contributes greatly to the study of identity formation, it does have limitations. This approach also represents a  relativist ontology, as it emphasises the diversity of interpretations that can be applied to research data. (Willig, 2001) As the approach focuses on the subjectivity of data and uses symbolic analysis it cannot be used to make predictions about events. â€Å"..My main preoccupation seemed to be desperately trying to deny the awareness of my difference which had started on that day†. (Micheline Mason, in Campling, 1981, pp. 23-4) Research by Erikson would suggest that this experience suggests a cause-effect relationship. The young girls ‘sudden awareness of the effect of her disability on her future. Erikson called this process â€Å"normative crisis†. Erikson research uses analysis techniques that look for understanding of the viewpoints of particular individuals. In contrast Social Constructionist analyses data from an outsider viewpoint that acknowledges the insiders viewpoint â€Å"but does not privilege it†. (Phoenix, 2007). Clearly, the Social Constructionist approach contributes greatly to the study of identity. It offers psychological research an epistemological stance and new research methods that are unique and enrich psychological research. The Social Constructionist theory is that our everyday social relations create new ‘knowledges’ that are unique to the individual and their cultural context is a dramatic insight to the study of identity. The approach is further strengthened by the view that language is a crucial part of socially constructed knowledge. The very conversations we have create multiple meanings depending on the way people choose to tell our stories. One of the weaknesses of this approach is that it is difficult to analyse and research cannot be extrapolated to the population as a whole.

Exploratory Research on Pizza Heaven Essay Example for Free

Exploratory Research on Pizza Heaven Essay 1. Exploratory research is a form of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. It helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. Even from the definition of exploratory research we can see, that it is done in order to define the problem and to help understand in which direction the further research should go. Exploratory research is preliminary, and is not conclusive, the quality of information provided is not perfect, and also the focus group chosen(40people) was not really representing the whole of the students at West coast. Therefore they should not yet implement the findings, because the data provided by 40 students might not be applicable to all student at West coast. 2. The problem Pizza Heaven has faced is that their sales have slipped. That could be due to competition from national chains such as Pizza Hut or Dominos, so questions about competition should be asked. (Because potential clients might like something about the competitors more e. g.pizza itself, delivery, atmosphere in restaurants) also, they noted that the selection was often poor Sales could have slipped, because of the range of products Pizza Heaven offers, so that topic has to be covered as well, including questions about new possible pizzas. (Because it may be that competitors are offering some types of pizza that Pizza Heaven dont have) A decrease in sales can also be due to poor customer service, so that topic should also be covered. People said that pizzas were usually dry and cold why? maybe delivery took too long, that should be explored in more details. 3. Step One: Establishing the Need for Marketing Research The need is already established, as there is a decrease in sales Step Two: Defining the Problem So the problem is a decrease in sales, due to what ? Step Three: Establishing Research Objectives Hard Competition? Poor range of products? Need better customer service? those are the questions to ask. Step Four: Determining Research Design. Descriptive and Causal Research should be done. Step Five: Identifying Information Types and Sources Primary data should be collected, but also secondary data could be of a little use, for example if the sales dropped overall and not only by Pizza Heaven, due to crisis or some other reason Step Six: Determining Methods of Accessing Data We should have people asking the question, and also questionnaires coming with each pizza could help. Step Seven: Designing Data collection Forms Can be questionnaires(must be worded objectively, clearly, and without bias in order to communicate with respondents), surveys, or both can be done through email (although there is only a 5% response rate) Step Eight: Determining Sample Plan and Size Sample Size should surely be more than 40 people from one location. Also a sample should be representative, e. g. not only student of age 18-20, but also every other age groups. Step Nine: Collecting Data Step Ten: Analyzing Data Step Eleven: Preparing and Presenting the Final Report.

Importation of Agricultural Products from Africa to the EU

Importation of Agricultural Products from Africa to the EU The Role Certification, including Grading and Standards Play in the Importation of Organic Agricultural Products from Africa to the EU CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Abstract What are standards?; what is organic produce? What factors drive the economic climate in Africa and the EU? What is certification? What is the purpose of certification? and how important is the exportation of organic agricultural produce from Africa to the EU in terms of their economic relationship?, are all questions which go to the heart of this thesis. Accordingly they will be extrapolated throughout the thesis enquiry and where they intersect and overlap this will be explained throughout the thesis. Various themes will be incorporated into the thesis since these, too will be relevant to the answering of the above named questions. These themes include; the economic climate in Africa; poverty in Africa; the importance of the organic produce exportation market to African farmers; why regulation is important in the EU; supply chain management issues and their importance; business good practice; traceability of produce; pricing; productisation and marketing strategies. These themes an d the answers to these questions will highlight the role that certification, including grading and standards play in the importation of organic products from Africa to the EU. The purpose of these processes will be looked at throughout the course of the thesis and this will elucidate their role also. The place of certification, grading and standards processes will be assessed; and their overall contribution to the economic climate in Africa will be examined. In this sense, through analysis of contemporary and historical, economic and political issues, both in the EU and in Africa, a greater perspective on the role of these processes may be derived. Also, the importance of organic produce to consumers in the EU will be examined and the reasons for its growth in popularity will be analysed, since this too will shed light on the role played by certification, grading and standards processes in the importation of organic produce from Africa to the EU. Introduction The economic relationship between Africa and the EU is complex (Ake, C. (1996); p1), and may be described as of key economic significance to Africa, and, albeit to a lesser extent to the EU. The economic relationship in terms of organic commodity trade and exportation is also important. The market for organic produce in the EU is developing at an exponential rate. The reasons for this will be looked at in more detail, as the thesis progresses, but for the moment is is suffice merely to support this point in the following way: the Centre for the Development of Industry in the EU has estimated that the annual growth rate of the organic products market in global terms exceeds 20% (CDI, 1999; p1). Some more figures may put this statistic into perspective. This industry for organic commodity produce produces sales of an estimated 4.1 billion Euro, in Europe (as estimated in 1997) (CDI, 1999; p2). This is all the more significant for the EU, given that according to EPOPA (2006; Section 3.1 .1) the connections between Africa and the EU in the arena of organic exportation of agricultural produce are far more developed that those between Africa and Japan or between Africa and the United States[1]. This evidences the importance of the relationship between the EU and Africa, and the importance of sustaining this economic relationship by keeping standards of produce in terms of quality and integrity at a high threshold. This is one of the functions of the the process of certification, which will be examined in greater detail as the the thesis progresses. The European Union have strict regulations which apply to the importation of organic products from Africa into the EU, and this is particularly true of organically produced commodities such as coffee, vanilla and other foodstuffs produced by African farmers. Certification is one of these processes of regulation and it is a requirement which is just one of an amalgam of requirements which must first be satisfied before organic agricultural products may be exported from Africa to the EU. Many programmes and organisations have been established with the specific purpose of encouraging African farmers to export organic produce to the EU. Organic produce which is to be exported from Africa into the EU is required to be checked rigorously to ensure that its standards are acceptable for consumption in the EU. These standards, procedures and programmes and their purpose will be explained and discussed throughout this project. In particular, there will be a focus on the role that grading and standards play in the importation of organic agricultural products from Africa into the EU. The methodology which will be used throughout the thesis will be qualitative in nature and will revolve around the evaluation of secondary sources. Some quantitative material will be used but this will be evaluated qualitatively, in keeping with the emphasis which is to be maintained on the qualitative arm of research methodology. Research Aims and Objectives The objectives of the research are fairly straightforward. The primary concern of the research is to answer the thesis question as clearly and as concisely as possible. The writer wishes to formulate an originally conceived thesis and to draw conclusions on the basis of what has been discovered through the research enquiry. The limitations of the research will be assessed, and the best ways to lessen the effects of limiting factors will be identified and implemented. Therefore the writer wishes the thesis to contribute to research in the field and to be a source of information for others interested in researching the same field. It is the ultimate aim of the writer, to fully understand the role of certification (to include the process of grading and standards) in the importation of organic agricultural produce from Africa to the EU. Therefore these processes will be examined in depth and explained in full, with reference to academic publications and internet based resources. The socio-political and economic environment in which these processes operate is of crucial importance to the thesis, and accordingly it is the aim of the writer to fully explain these and the give illustrations of theory, where appropriate. A means of doing so effectively has been identified as the use of a case study. Accordingly, the country of Uganda has been chosen as the basis for the case study, and the socio political environment and the points made in relation to this will be illustrated through this mechanism. CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY Methodology This project will involve a qualitative evaluation of published and well known texts in the field. These will be secondary sources, as the topic is so far removed from Western culture and the resources available to the writer are such that credible primary research is perhaps not a feasible option. Nevertheless in depth and comprehensive insights will be gleamed from books, articles and web based resources. The methodology will therefore use secondary sources. Qualitative research mainly focuses on an interpretation of the world around the researcher. The researcher themselves is used as a mechanism of research and their observations form key elements in the research (Bryman, A. (1992); p45). Quantitative research, conversely focuses on scientific extrapolations of data (Bryman, A. (1992); p11) and quantitative research tends to predict and hypothesis about results whereas qualitative research results tend to be more malleable and subjective in their extrapolation. The focus on qualitative research was chosen for this project as it seemed more compatible with the ultimate aims of the thesis enquiry. A dearth of literature is available on the subject at hand and this may be explored through many means such as library based and internet based research. Therefore views and opinions, as well as the research of others were consulted in the course of the research. In the course of research of this nature, to preserve the integrity of the research; objectivity is obviously a prime concern. The writer must be careful not to extract views that are biased, or to formulate their own views through examination of biased material. Therefore a very wide scope was introduced to the research and a wide selection of texts were consulted. Where possible more than one text were used to substantiate points that are to be made. This scope will assist the writer to accumulate a more biased and open minded view of the issues which the research question will address. The objectivity of the research was also preserved as the writer consulted a wide range of sources published by interested parties, such as development agencies, non profit making organisations, government endorsed material and material available from the world of academia. The website of the European Union was also consulted as this is probably quite a reliable source of information, and reliability, like objectivity was paramount in the pursuit of the research objectives. Therefore sources that were disseminated through reliable and well recognised media like on-line book databases were consulted. In this sense therefore the qualitative research which was the objective of the project was gathered systematically and in a planned and structured manner. Potential drawbacks and potential problems for the thesis enquiry were also considered. Limited resources were obviously a primary concern, as any research project may be indefinitely improved upon through expenditure of money and availability of resources. However, since this is a university project and one which has a limited time scale, such investment was not feasible. Therefore the writer attempted to compensate for this by ensuring that the research objectives were identified clearly from an early stage of the research, so as to enable the writer to devote as much time as possible to the gathering of material for the project. The research was therefore well planned and executed in a consistent and methodical manner, adding credibility and depth to the finished piece. Ethics are also of primary concern to any credible researcher. Therefore, the writer ensured that they familiarised themselves with ethical research practices, prior to the execution of the research. In terms of ethics, for this research, which does not involve contact with human research subjects, the ethical concerns of the writer were probably much less onerous, as great care must be taken when human subjects are involved in research. Nevertheless, ethical concerns played a substantial part of the research skeleton and the themes of objectivity and reliability of sources were given much consideration, as has been explained above. The emphasis was on producing a wide, comprehensive, well thought out and ethically complied thesis and this is obvious from how the piece has been approached. CHAPTER THREE AFRICA, FARMING AND THE EU African Farmers and the EU Thousands of African farmers operate small farm holdings and they are, in many respects reliant upon these agricultural practices in terms of maintaining a healthy, or even subsistence standard of living. Poverty among this sector of Africans (the agricultural sector) has been explained in many ways, some of which are described in this passage: 'Tiffen et al.'s (1994) much-admired study of Machakos District, Kenya, demonstrates much success in agricultural development and improved rural welfare over the last 40 years. But there is precious little in that work about differentiation. Instead, we have had to wait for Rocheleau et al. (1995) for reports of increasing social differentiation in the District. This has been reinforced by the detail in Murton's recently published work (1999), based on surveys in one village in upper Machakos, supported by rapid appraisal for other villages.Forty per cent or more of households have not had the capital to invest in cash crops of coffee and French beans(Belshaw and Livingstone (2002); p110)'. The EU plays an important part in maintaining higher living standards for the African farmers, and a large part of this involves supporting the practice of exportation of organic produce from Africa to the EU. This supporting function engaged in by the EU involves the support and maintenance of various agencies and initiatives. The agencies to whom the responsibility of ensuring that the importation of organic agricultural products from Africa to the EU runs smoothly conduct research and gather data in relation to the operation of importing organic produce from Africa into the EU. They also offer advice to African farmers wishing to improve their circumstances through growing and exporting their products to the EU. Examples of the agencies and initives mentioned above include EPOPA (Export Promotion of Organic Products from Africa), Fairtrade and EFTA. EPOPA This is an organisation which is called a development agency. It was originally set up by the Swedish International Development Agency in 1997, and its aim is to educate African farmers about business strategy and awareness of the regulations which are involved in exporting their organic produce to Africa (EPOPA, 2006; p1). Specifically, this agency targets small holder farmers as this sector of the African population stand to gain the most from this education, advice and information provision service (EPOPA, 2006; p1). EFTA EFTA was established in 1990 and this term stands for the European Free Trade Association (http://www.efta.int/). This organisation operates as part of a network which involves eleven different Fair Trade organisations in various European countries, who import fair trade products from almost 500 economically disadvantaged countries, including Africa (http://www.efta.int/). Its head office is based in Maastricht in the Netherlands and its main official mission statement is to ensure that Fair Trade is conducted more efficiently and effectively; part of its role is also to disseminate information to farmers in Africa and to organise networks between farmers to ensure that they can exchange ideas and experiences of producing products, including agricultural products for sale in the EU (http://www.efta.int/). Markets for Organic Products It is important to be aware that the market for organic produce is limited when compared with the markets for more generic produce. Although it has been argued above that the market for organic produce in the EU is quite large, it is important to understand that this market is not comparable in terms of size with other markets, selling globally recognised merchandise and products such as Mc Donald's food and mobile phones. This puts the pressing need for quality standards in the organic food market into perspective, and highlights the need for processes of certification and quality control. In terms of organic trade the US, the United Kingdom and Germany have the biggest markets for the sale of organic produce; whereas the most significant per capita consumption can be found in Switzerland, Sweden and Denmark (EPOPA, 2006; Annex 2). This limited size exemplifies the importance of putting high quality produce into these markets; as often what drives the demand for organic produce is the perception that organic produce is of a superior quality and is more healthy for the purposes of consumption. Outlets for Organic Produce A look at the food outlets for organic produce throughout the EU will also allow the writer to gain perspective on the importance of quality and standards. This analysis will introduce the main thrust of the thesis, which is the role of certification, grading and standards in the importation of organic produce from Africa into the EU. In the EU, most organic produce tends to be marketing through hypermarkets and supermarkets (EPOPA, 2006; Annex 2). The emphasis is on cleanliness and presentability. This is an indication of the growing demands there are in the EU for organic produce. The features of organic produce are very marketable within the EU, in the face of public concerns about food safety and health issues connected with foodstuffs. The genetically modified food market has also perhaps strengthened the demand for organic foodstuffs within the EU, since this controversial issue has highlighted and contributed to the growing concerns there are among members of the public about the long term health impacts which may be the result of eating an unhealthy or overly chemically ridden diet. There are proven links between diet and cancer; proven links between some chemicals and cancer and obviously these health issues make the public image of organic foodstuffs very important. These factors have put organic food onto the shopping lists of many people within the EU, who perhaps traditionally would have regarded organic food as a luxury which was extravagant and unnecessary. The next section will focus on how Africa came to be one of Europe's main suppliers of these organic foodstuffs, that are growing in importance. CHAPTER FOUR AFRICA'S DEVELOPING ECONOMY Africa's Economic Climate and the Developments Which Have Affected the Agricultural Industry The Africa economy has undoubtedly become more sophisticated in recent years (http://europa.eu/pol/agr/index_en.htm) (Hanna, J. and Hanna, W. (1981); p81). Like the Republic of Ireland, Africa has seen a process of diversification. The age old dependency upon commodities for the economic well being of the country has been lessened through the process of diversification (Barber, W. (1961); p44) (Hyden, G., Kates, R. and Turner, B. (1993); p41). Mauritius is just one example; South Africa, Botswana, Senegal and Uganda are others. Commodities such as sugar cane, minerals and gold and diamond exportation and the manufacturing industries which have seen more investment have contributed to this emboldened leap forward(Arnold, G (2000); p91) (Konadu-Agyemang, K. (2001); p11). Strengthening political structures has also played a large part in the economic progress that has been seen to affect the commodity markets in particular in these countries (Yudelman, D. (1983); p3) (Ottaway, M. (1997); p15). Ottoway gives us some important detail here: 'The economy that the new democratic elites inherit in most African countries has typically suffered from two decades of mismanagement, exogenous shocks, and inappropriate policies, resulting in a growing debt crisis and a semipermanent process of negotiations and debt rescheduling with international creditors. In addition, the democratic transition itself has occasioned large economic costs, either because of extensive civil unrest and sometimes violence, or because of the fiscal recklessness of authoritarian leaders trying to hold onto power. Thus, the governments that emerge from the process of democratization face the daunting tasks of consolidating pluralist institutions and undertaking urgent economic reform simultaneously(Ottaway, M. (1997); p17)'. During the 1960s, when most African countries obtained independence from colonial rule, many commodity industries were subject to a process similar to the nationalised industry strategies we saw immediately prior to the Thatcher era in Britain (Aryeetey, E., Court, J., Nissanke, M. and Weder, B. (2003); p201). The commodity industries in most African countries therefore were heavily influenced by politicians often engaged in undemocratic practices (Reynolds, A. (1999); p28). Also, the absence of private enterprise which these national led economies fostered led to huge market inefficiency. These processes are slowly becoming more sophisticated, and African countries have moved from selling raw produce to packaging and marketing their own. Africa farmers are also engaged in direct trading with the West(Federici, S., McLaren, J. and Mwaria, C. (2000); p3); the EU in particular as we have seen explained in the introduction. Better investment in the economies of African countries has led to the availability of more education for more people. Interventions from agencies, described above have also contributed greatly to the increasing sophistication of the economies of African countries, paying dividends in terms of a strengthened economy and better stability for small holdings farmers (Abubakar, A. (1989); p83). Better roads have also been a dividend of this growing economic fervour, as these have led to better economic stability for producers who are able to sustain their own supply chains for private enterprise commodity exportation to the EU, and further afield. Specifically, this is of relevance to organic producers of agricultural produce for ultimate distribution in the EU. Sea and air freight are the most common forms of transportation used by African farmers to deliver their products to the EU (EPOPA, 2006; Section 3.1.3). However there are countries such as Uganda and Zambia, which may be descried as landlocked countries, and as such they need to rely upon established and well constructed roads in order to ensure that there business supply chain is uninterrupted and reliable. This is so that they may be able to reach ports and airports with their produce. What is Quality/What are Standards? This refers to a measure of how much value the product may be seen as having. Higher quality products tend to have higher values. Standards, in the context of the certification process refer to a measure of quality. Quality is important in the context of organic commodity export from Africa to the EU as it allows producers to measure how valuable their produce is in a comparative sense. In this sense, quality informs the end consumer of the product and it also informs each and every actor who has contact with products along the supply chain which brings the product to market. Quality is therefore of key significance to all concerned with the presence of organic agricultural commodities from Africa in the EU and global markets. Specifically, quality in the production of organic commodities in Africa is measured with reference to particular characteristics. These are: origin, service, volume, and reliability of exporter (EPOPA, 2006; Section 3.5). CHAPTER FIVE THE CERTIFICATION PROCESS AND WIDER ECONOMIC ISSUES Factors which an African Farmer Must Take into Account: The Certification Process Before an African farmer may export organic agricultural goods for consumption within the EU, the farmer must first obtain a certificate in Organic Standards (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.2). The purpose of the certification process is to ensure that the farmer is producing organic products that are of a high enough standard to enter the EU market and the homes of EU consumers. It is illegal for an African farmer to export goods from their farms, for distribution in the UK, without first obtaining such certification, and the organic certificate is only issued for a period of one year (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.3). While obtaining the appropriate certification, is often time consuming and expensive, there are many ways this certification can be obtained and the two major categories are external certification and internal certification (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.3). The farmers may engage in what is known as an Internal Control System or ICS. Small farmers can obtain certification in groups, which ameliorates the constraint of expense on the farmer in question (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.3). This system of internal certification is advantageous to farmers also as it maximises contact between farmers in similar situations and enables networks to the established between the farmers and therefore facilitates the building of economic relationships and the sharing of experience and expertise. These groups need to be monitored internally. External certification involves an external certifier gathering much information about the farmers who wish to export their agricultural organic produce to the EU. In order for standards and grading to be conducted in a fair and consistent manner the farmer in question must provide much information about their business and agricultural practices (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.3). The external certifier may organise inspections of the produce (and where quality suspicions have been raised, more inspections may be carried out at the certifier's discretion) which has been grown by the farmer wishing to export organic goods for sale and consumption in the EU and the certifier may make certain recommendations to the farmer; accordingly the external certifier holds much power and influence (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.3). What Does the Certifier Look For in the Pursuit of Consistent Standards of Product Integrity? The certifier will look at a number of issues before the issue of a certification which will enable the farmer to distribute his organic agricultural produce for consumption in the EU. Firstly there will be a need to ensure that organic and non-organic produce is keep separate; secondly there will be a need to ensure that products are traceable; thirdly the technologies which are used in the growth and production process are strictly monitored, and lastly there will be a need to ensure that controls are imposed on agents used in the production process of the goods (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.4). These are the main issues which a certifier will look at before a certificate will be issued to the farmer who wishes to export his agricultural produce to the EU. Perhaps the most important of these processes is the need for traceability. This process refers to the identification of foodstuffs and an ability to trace where the product has come from (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.3-2.4). This process is particularly important, where there are quality or health and safety issues with the organic foodstuffs. This process therefore involves a registration programme, where farmers are required to to register the full origin of the produce, including any supply chain transitions, so that the origin of the foodstuffs are always clearly identifiable (EPOPA, 2006; Section 2.3-2.4). In terms of the monitoring of technology and the other factors identified above; these are also very important in the process of standards and grading of the produce. Ethical factors are key here. Organic agriculture is often viewed by those who purchase and consume organic products as a safer and more environmentally friendly option. The certification process has to ensure that these standards are retained on a level which is commensurate with the levels of faith that consumers of organic produce place in them. Therefore technologies and production enhancement through the use of technology is strictly monitored in the standards/grading and certification process. The Need for Certification in Terms of Quality Control of Organic Agricultural Produce There is quite a broad spectrum of quality which may be expected from African producers of organic agricultural produce. This diversity exists even in spite of the checks which are imposed at certification level. The agencies which work closely with African farmers aim to eliminate these problems with quality. The certification process is just the first step, since even the checks which may be imposed at certification level can only guarantee a standard level of quality. In some cases, also the certification inspections may not be frequent enough to identify and eliminate sub standard produce. The long term solution to this problem therefore is arguably to attempt to look at why some African farmers are producing lower grade produce and in doing so to attempt to identify some possible solutions to this problem. Organic farming is also highly labour intensive and attracts very high distributions expenses. Also, in terms of organic produce from Africa, the African distributors often obtain very low prices for their products in EU markets and this encourages or even necessitates lower quality produce to be distributed (EPOPA, 2006; Annex 3). This is due to a number of factors, one of which is that the image of Africa and African produce is quite poor. Consumers are often very concerned with the origin of the products in question and, while this is an intangible issue, which is essentially reputation orientated; this does not imply that it cannot be addressed at source, by African farmers. One way to address this problem is to build rapport with the customer, by attaching recognisable names and personas to the produce, creating continuity and trust between producers and the end consumer. Examples of these 'personas' have been identified by EPOPA (2006; Section 3.2.1) as Tasty Toms, De l Monte Pineapples and Chiquita bananas. Branding therefore is a crucial part of the commodity market for sale of organic produce between Africa and the EU, as it builds trust and encourages the African farmers producing such commodities to maintain their reputations through strengthening the quality of the products they can distribute to end customers. The Fair Trade Certification Process This is a particular course of certification which may be acquired mainly for agricultural products (EPOPA, 2006; Section 3.3.3). It is similar to the generic process of certification, although it is perhaps not as widely recognised by exporters of produce to the EU, which is because this particular method of certification seeks to target small and disadvantaged commodity producers in Africa (EPOPA, 2006; Section 3.3.3). What is the Grading and Standards Process? The grading process is an essential part of the organic exportation business. It may be done by both farmers themselves and by exporters (EPOPA, 2006; Section 3.2.2). It ensures that minimum standards are adhered to and that there are levels of consistency in terms of quality instilled in the quality control processes surrounding the exportation of organic produce to the EU. Grading may be carried out in conjunction with other processes that are linked to the grading system. Bulking, cleaning, grading and packing are usually undertaken at the same time (EPOPA, 2006; Section 3.2.2), as this enables the grader to identify and separate lower quality produce, and to ensure that the produce is fully prepared for exportation. For example, if a certain commodity is packaged in a particular way, it may be graded in a better category, since it is to be expected that the packaging may preserve the produce better than inferior packaging or no packaging at all. Grading and its Links with Better Infrastructure Grading is inherently linked with economic and infrastructure development in African countries. It makes sense that processes like this should not be regarded as isolated processes. For example, the grading of produce may be significantly affected by the length of time it takes for their produce to reach points where exportation may begin. Therefore the point that economic processes may be seen to be intertwined so crucially with more macro economic